行为主义的思想在19世纪末和20世纪初的源头。约翰·B·沃森（John B.据信他首先使用了“行为主义”一词。沃森（Watson）认为，如果心理学成为详细的客观观察和科学测量的过程，只有心理学才能成为一门真正的科学。这种观察和测量的概念成为行为主义者工作的核心。任何对心理过程的考虑（从定义上都是无法观察到的）都超出了他们自我强加的兴趣范围。因此，行为主义的方法是从对实际可以看到的研究的研究中发展出来的。正如我们将看到的那样，这种发展心理学理论的方法忽略了许多隐藏的心理过程，后来该领域的工人开始解释并认为对我们对复杂活动的理解至关重要，而复杂活动构成了不同类型的活动学习。

行为主义基于对特定刺激的反应的中心概念。这种显然简单的关系已被用来描述最复杂的学习情况。从最简单的角度来看，我们可以观察到行为，在各种不同的情况下，我们可以称之为“学到的行为”。例如，表演密封将对特定的刺激作出响应 - hooter的声音或鱼的呈现 - 通过举起自身并将其拖鞋拍打在一起，就好像鼓掌一样。一只宠物狗会通过这样做来回应“乞讨”的刺激，这使围观者的喜悦非常高兴。这种刺激反应关系也可以在人类中看到。在需要立即做出反应的情况下，练习情况会无休止地重复，以便士兵，消防员或航空公司飞行员将在给定情况下做出正确的，可能是挽救生命的反应。近年来，响应式实践的重要性得到了强调，并根据大脑中特定神经途径的加强来解释，这具有更快和更平滑的某些动作和反应的实施。

约翰·沃森（John B. Watson）

行为主义：定义

行为主义is a theory of learning focusing on observable behaviours and discounting any mental activity. Learning is defined simply as the acquisition of new behaviour. Behaviourists call this method of learning ‘conditioning’. Two different types of conditioning are described and demonstrated as viable explanations of the way in which animals and humans alike can be ‘taught’ to do certain things. First there is classical conditioning.

经典条件

这涉及加强自然反射或某些其他行为，这些行为是对特定刺激的反应。这类条件的一个众所周知的例子，是同类条件的第一个，是二十世纪初的俄罗斯生理学家伊万·帕夫洛夫（Ivan Pavlov）的作品，他调节狗在铃铛的声音中垂涎三尺。他注意到狗在吃东西甚至看到食物时垂涎三尺。在他的最初实验中，他在向狗展示食物时听到了铃铛。对于狗来说，钟声的声音表明即将出现食物，最终狗会在铃铛的声音中垂涎三尺，无论食物的存在如何。这些狗的条件是通过产生唾液来应对铃铛的声音。他们的行为已成功修改。我们以一般方式谈论条件和条件回应。在牙医的钻头或注射注射器时，对注射的恐惧感是有条件反应的例子。帕夫洛夫（Pavlov）在其经典条件的过程中确定了四个阶段，以及刺激与响应之间的初始联系：采集，灭绝，概括和歧视。

获得

采集阶段是对条件反应的初步学习 - 例如，狗在铃铛的声音中流血。

EXTINCTION

Once learnt, a conditioned response will not remain indefinitely. Extinction is used to describe the disappearance of the conditioned response brought about by repeatedly presenting the bell, for example, without then presenting food.

概括

After a conditioned response to one stimulus has been learnt, it may also respond to similar stimuli without further training. If a child is bitten by a dog, the child may fear not only that particular dog, but all dogs.

歧视

歧视是概括的对立面。一个人学会对一种刺激产生条件反应，而不是对另一种刺激产生条件反应。例如，一个孩子可能会对自由漫游的狗表示恐惧的反应，但是当狗在铅上或不信任的阿尔萨斯人时，可能不会表现出恐惧，而不是杰克·罗素（Jack Russell）梗（一种小白色梗犬）。

操作条件

第二种条件是“操作调节”。操作条件是最重要的行为主义学习类型。它的性质比古典条件更灵活，因此可能会更强大。它涉及通过奖励行为来加强行为。当可以通过对某种形式的惩罚来遵循不良行为时，它也可以以消极的方式工作。在某些情况下，根本不为特定行为提供预期的奖励就是足够的惩罚。例如，如果母亲每天都会给孩子一个巧克力棒，让他整理卧室，不久之后，孩子可能每天都花一些时间整理。在此示例中，整理行为增加了，因为它得到了奖励。这种奖励被称为“强化”。如果奖励被暂停，整理行为可能会减少或完全停止。 Skinner, a psychologist working in America in the 1930s, is the most famous psychologist in the field of operant conditioning and probably the most famous behaviourist. Skinner studied the behaviour of rats and pigeons, and made generalisations of his discoveries to humans. He used a device now called a Skinner box. The Skinner box was a simple, empty box in which an animal could earn food by making simple responses, such as pressing a lever. A normal, almost random action by the animal, such as pressing a lever in the box, would result in a reward, such as a pellet of food. As the rewards continued for the repetition of the action, the animal ‘learnt’ that in order to be fed it must press the lever.

斯金纳坚持认为，奖励和惩罚控制着大多数人类行为，并且操纵条件的原则可以解释所有人类的学习。操作条件的关键方面如下。

加强

这是指具有加强特定行为的任何作用，并使行为可能再次发生。强化有两种类型：积极和负面。

POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT

积极的加强是控制动物和人的行为的有力方法。对于人们来说，积极的增强剂包括基本物品，例如食物，饮料，认可，甚至像关注一样简单的东西。在教室的背景下，赞美，众议院或选择活动的自由都在不同的情况下用作理想行为的奖励。

负强化

顾名思义，这是一种通过将行为与不愉快的“随访”配对来降低行为可能性的方法。关于惩罚是减少或消除不必要行为的有效方法存在争议。实验室实验表明，惩罚可能是减少特定行为的有效方法，但存在明显的缺点，尤其是在课堂情况下。愤怒，沮丧或侵略可能会遵循惩罚，或者可能还有其他负面情绪反应。

成型

塑造的概念是指一种加强技术，该技术用于教导他们从未有过的动物或人类行为。塑造时，教练开始于增强简单的响应，学习者可以轻松执行该响应。相同的奖励需要逐渐越来越复杂的响应。例如，要教老鼠按头顶杠杆，教练可以首先奖励任何向上的运动，然后奖励至少三厘米的向上运动，然后又有六厘米，依此类推，直到到达杠杆。塑造已被用来教导有严重精神困难的儿童来说话，首先奖励他们发出的任何声音，然后逐渐奖励与所教单词的大约奖励声音。动物训练者使用塑形来教动物。在教室中，塑造可用于教授逐步的复杂技能，更明显地确保在一天结束时，诸如儿童的期望行为，排队进行集会等。当老师说“让我们看看哪个桌子已经准备好”时，在许多教室中，见证许多如果不是全部的孩子都用折叠的手臂坐着，然后整理自己的财产并不罕见。在课堂上有一个学习的地方，依赖于行为主义的原则。但是，由于行为主义对心理活动，概念形成或理解几乎没有重视，因此在设置完全取决于行为主义方法的教学哲学时，存在难以克服的问题。

在一般学习情况下的行为主义

As all parents will understand, there are certain situations where, for reasons of safety, it is important that young children do not do certain things – stepping off the kerb, poking electrical sockets, reaching towards a pan of cooking vegetables and so on. In a potentially dangerous situation, a parent is likely to respond swiftly and decisively. Often the action taken by a parent will involve a shouted ‘No!’ or the rapid removal of the child from the situation. The child will come to associate the poking of an electrical socket with an undesirable reaction from the parent and in this way learn to avoid the reaction by not poking sockets – at least, that is the expectation. The reason for no longer carrying out socket-poking is not dependent upon an understanding of the dangers of electrocution. The cessation of the poking behaviour can be described in terms of negative reinforcement. Had the parental response to the action been a smile and a hug, it is possible that the action would be positively reinforced and the chances of repetition increased significantly.

这不是要建议喊叫，打sm或任何这样的极端行动，但是可以看出，出于权宜之计和未来安全的原因，行为主义者的反应效果很好。的确，当诸如严重伤害或死亡等方程式之类的概念时，试图解释特定行动可能产生的结果的性质变得非常困难。根除行为是最重要的考虑因素。涉及的概念变得不那么重要。有些人可能会争辩说，知道做或不做某件事至少比理解重要得多。在儿童的智力发展中，可以在更合适的时刻遵循这种理解。

与行为主义相关的名称的历史

帕夫洛夫

Pavlov通过研究狗的研究开发了该理论，称为“经典条件”。从他的角度来看，学习始于刺激反应联系。在这个理论中，某些刺激会导致特定的反应。

Thorndike

Thorndikeintroduced a theory of learning now called ‘connectionism’. Thorndike emphasised the role of experience in the strengthening and weakening of stimulus-response connections:‘ Responses to a situation that are followed by satisfaction are strengthened; responses that are followed by discomfort weakened.’ Thorndike proposed that practice also influences stimulus-response connections. His idea that rewards promote learning continues to be a key element of behaviourist theory.

沃森

沃森introduced the term ‘behaviourism’ and was an important advocate of the approach in the early part of the twentieth century. Watson called for the use of scientific objectivity and experiment in the psychology of learning. He devised the law of frequency that stressed the importance of repetition: ‘The more frequent a stimulus and response occur in association with each other, the stronger that habit will become.’ He also devised the law of recency: ‘The response that has most recently occurred after a particular stimulus is the response most likely to be associated with that stimulus.’ (The principle of recency states that things most recently learned are best remembered.)

Guthrie

Edwin Guthrie put forward a theory of what he called ‘contiguity’: ‘A stimulus that is followed by a particular response will, upon its recurrence, tend to be followed by the same response again. This stimulus-response connection gains in its full strength on one trial.’ Guthrie conducted very little practical research and as a result doubt has been cast upon his theories.

斯金纳

斯金纳is probably the best known psychologist in the behaviourist tradition. He identified the theory of operant conditioning. Skinner spoke only about the strengthening of responses, not the strengthening of habits or actions. Skinner used the term ‘reinforcer’ instead of ‘reward’. He was keen to stress the importance of a positive approach to learning involving rewards, but also understood the value of punishment. His most fundamental principle is his law of conditioning: ‘A response followed by a reinforcing stimulus is strengthened and therefore more likely to occur again.’ A second principle was his law of extinction: ‘A response that is not followed by a reinforcing stimulus is weakened and therefore less likely to occur again.’ Skinner’s work was meticulous and methodical, based upon scrupulous scientific observation and measurement. He developed strict schedules of reinforcement in his attempt to codify learning and to establish a pattern of best practice. In his later work, he began to recognise the influence of mental process which had previously been acknowledged by behaviourists. 4

Summary

行为主义者认为，由于经验，学习是一种相对永久的，可观察到的行为变化。这种变化是通过奖励和加强过程实现的，但最初对心理过程或理解几乎没有考虑。

在教室里

Standard routines and expectations for behaviour can be made clear and reinforced in a behaviouristic way. The use of rewards in the form of team points, or such like, can be a great incentive to work hard and to behave well. Punishments, such as loss of privileges, or the withholding of rewards can be effective as well, although it is widely recognised that a positive approach is preferable to an approach to behaviour management predicated solely on punishments. Some ‘rote’ learning may be a useful way of helping some children to cope better with some of the aspects of their work which they find difficult. Where possible, initial rote learning should be followed by attempts to encourage understanding.

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